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The field of studies increased quickly, with various books on the subject appearing in the 1990s. Formal theories of have actually concentrated on developing a "manga expression theory", with emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page, differentiating the medium from movie or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic organizing component.
The publication of Frederik L. Schodt's in 1983 caused the spread of usage of the word manga outside Japan to suggest "Japanese comics" or "Japanese-style comics". Coulton Waugh attempted the first detailed history of American comics with The Comics (1947 ). Will Eisner's (1985) and Scott Mc, Cloud's (1993) were early efforts in English to formalize the study of comics.
Popular American efforts at definitions of comics consist of Eisner's, Mc, Cloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize a concept"; Scott Mc, Cloud specified comics as "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in purposeful sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce a visual action in the audience", a strictly formal definition which separated comics from its historic and cultural trappings.
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Harvey specified comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words (frequently lettered into the picture location within speech balloons) normally contribute to the significance of the photos and vice versa". Each definition has had its critics. 天空漫画 saw Mc, Cloud's definition as omitting single-panel animations, and challenged Mc, Cloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, firmly insisting "the essential quality of comics is the incorporation of spoken content".
Cross-cultural research study of comics is made complex by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for "comics" in different languages. The French term for comics, ("drawn strip") stresses the juxtaposition of drawn images as a specifying factor, which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics. The term is used in Japanese to show all forms of comics, cartooning, and caricature.